FINAL DRAFT
Patrick 'Kitten' Braden: “Well, you see, the thing is, Bertie, I'm not a girl”. Bertie: “Oh, I knew that, Princess”[1] How is male-to-female cross-dressing represented in film, with particular reference to “Breakfast on Pluto”?
Gender is used as ‘a basic category… for sorting human beings’[2] and ‘denotes a… division between women and men embedded in both social institutions and social practices’[3]. In terms of representation, gender can be described as an ‘achieved status rather than an ascribed biological characteristic’[4], and one that is ‘based on tasks performed and the significance of clothing’[5] rather than actual physical anatomy. The definitive attributes of each gender are significant in cross-dressing, an act defined as ‘wearing clothing commonly associated with another gender'[6]. Throughout the history of film, cross-dressers and the act of cross-dressing have been represented using a variety of portrayals. From ‘mental misfits who wove cross-dressing into their psychotic activities’[7] in films such as ‘Psycho’ (1960) and ‘Silence of the Lambs’ (1991) to the caricatured and comedic man in a dress evident in films such as ‘Some Like it Hot’ (1959) and ‘Tootsie’ (1982) cross-dressing in film can be seen in various guises.
Alongside the use of cross-dressing in a humorous capacity, evident in the image of Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis tottering along a train platform on high heels in ‘Some Like it Hot’, and the demonisation of the act, shown in ‘Silence of the Lambs’ by protagonist ‘Buffalo Bill’ Gumb who desperately attempts to adopt ‘feminine’ qualities, notably both mainstream films, the portrayal of cross-dressing in film can be placed into two additional distinct categories: personalised or glamorised. An example of the former is ‘Transamerica’ (2005), an independent film, which features a ‘sensitive and intuitive’[8] depiction of the emotional journey of protagonist Bree, a transsexual. ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ (2005), on the other hand, leans more towards glamorisation overall, with protagonist Patrick ‘Kitten’ Braden, who looks ‘startlingly pretty in blonde curls, lip gloss and fur’[9] being portrayed as ‘a splash of vibrant colour within a monochrome world’[10]. With particular reference to ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ this essay will illuminate the ways in which cross-dressing is represented in film while resting on the self-contrived hypothesis that the depiction can be categorised in four ways: cross-dressing as glamorous; demonic; humorous or personalised. Further to this hypothesis the essay will also interpose that the most common portrayal of cross-dressing in film is in a humorous capacity.
‘Breakfast on Pluto’ is an art house comedy/drama, with elements of romance, which depicts the adventures and encounters of Patrick ‘Kitten’ Braden as he proceeds from small-town life in Ireland to 1970s London in search of his mother. The film is stylised, episodic and features ‘computer visuals [which] enhance the real world with the fantasy world’[11]. ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ features a circular-narrative and subsequently we first meet the protagonist in the opening scene as ‘a demurely dressed woman push[ing] a pram down a London street, passing a busy construction site… [and] attract[ing] wolf whistles from the workers on the scaffolding above’[12]. This scene, alongside several others, contains dramatic irony in that the audience are persistently aware of the protagonists cross-dressing whereas at points throughout the film certain characters are oblivious.
Audience consciousness of cross-dressing is a shared trait in the majority of films which depict the subject, yet this awareness surpasses mere narrative and can be examined as an example of underlying patriarchy. The question can be asked ‘why is it that we must not be allowed to be completely duped by cross-dressing?’[13] Leading to the query ‘why is it that male sexuality must not be completely repressed?’[14] The answer to these questions could become apparent when looking at Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis and, specifically, the idea of castration anxiety. Castration anxiety is ‘anxiety in the face of the threat of [removal of the phallus]’[15], the phallus being ‘not merely the penis but rather the power and authority that the penis represents’[16]. Complete repression of male sexuality in cross-dressing could generate such anxiety; therefore the audience is always conscious of the gender beneath the clothing. Castration anxiety which could be created in ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ is reduced by the use of phallic symbols throughout the film. An example of this is on two occasions when we see Patrick ‘Kitten’ Braden applying make-up in a mirror, once as a boy and once as an adolescent, the picture on the mirror is a beer bottle, an obvious phallic symbol.
Another response to the question of why male sexuality is irrepressible in cross-dressing is that the topic of cross-dressing in film causes ‘the socially constructed nature of sexual difference [to be] fore-grounded and even subjected to comment: what appears natural, then, reveals itself as artifice’[17]. This therefore poses a challenge to the hegemony, linking with the Queer Theory (1990), a theory stemming from third wave feminism which questions whether ‘the categories of sexuality [are] socially contrived, created through discourse, or are… natural givens, outside of our control’[18]. The concept of cross-dressing obviously relies on the tangible distinctions between male and female characteristics and specifically clothing. In ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ the differences between the protagonist and stereotypical males is expressed early in the film when he suggests to a schoolteacher: “instead of PE I could take home economics and needlework class”[19]. This therefore reinforces the distinct differences between accepted male and female activities, a concept questioned by the queer theory.
Pioneering queer theorist Judith Butler wrote that ‘the performance of drag plays upon the distinction between the anatomy of the performer and the gender that is being performed’[20]. Using drag and cross-dressing Judith Butler ‘develops a conception of gender as performance’[21] rather than a definitive label. Drag ‘usually refers to the clothing associated with one gender role when worn by a person of the other gender’[22]. It ‘blurs gender lines and makes an audience question traditional ideas of sex’[23]. The portrayal of cross-dressing in film often takes the form of drag as can be seen in ‘The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert’ (1994), ‘To Wong Foo Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar’ (1995) and more recently ‘Kinky Boots’ (2005). Drag queens are stereotypically highly glamorous, audacious and witty with exaggerated ‘feminine’ qualities and attributes such as excess make-up and extra long eyelashes, thus supporting Judith Butler’s idea of gender as performance. ‘In films… drag becomes a safe and circuitous way of dealing with gay subjects’[24] as it implies that ‘homosexuality is about what one wears, not what one feels’[25]. Consequently drag is more acceptable in mainstream films, portraying this specific form of cross-dressing as humorous, glamorous but very rarely an emotional issue.
Cult Australian film ‘The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert’ ‘explored gay stereotypes without [using them] for… cheap laugh[s]’[26] unlike many of the films’ mainstream counterparts. Conversely, Hollywood’s ‘To Wong Foo Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar’ creates the humorous image of Patrick Swayze, John Leguizamo and Wesley Snipes, actors better known for roles in films such as ‘Dirty Dancing’ (1987) and ‘Blade’ (1998). Here they adorn make-up, heels and frocks, creating a ‘safe’, Hollywood-friendly portrayal of a complex issue. British film, ‘Kinky Boots’ differs from Hollywood representations due to the occasionally poignant portrayal of transvestite Lola’s search for her identity. Unlike many films featuring drag ‘Kinky Boots’ touches upon the emotional issues surrounding cross-dressing, significantly when Lola exclaims: “Put on a frock and I can sing 'Stand by Your Man' in front of five hundred strangers... Put on a pair of jeans and I can't even sodding well say hello”[27]. Consequently the film ‘Kinky Boots’ becomes difficult to categorise in its portrayal as it contains degrees of humour, glamour, but also the personal approach.
In ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ the first appearance of protagonist Patrick ‘Kitten’ Braden fully in female clothing is during a performance with Billy and the Mohawks in a scene entitled ‘My Showbiz Career’. The opening shot of this scene begins with the camera panning over a crowd of young people dancing, generally wearing quite conservative clothing. This creates a binary opposition between the norms in the crowd and Kitten who, onstage with lead singer Billy and the band, wears a gold and glittering costume connoting glamour and preciousness. Kitten is dressed as a squaw; a position which connotes an ‘enslaved [and] voiceless child bearer’[28], therefore Kitten is portrayed as inferior in the relationship and subservient to dominant and ‘masculine’ Billy. In an earlier scene Kitten volunteered to be squaw, which suggests a desire to be submissive to a dominant partner thus reinforcing patriarchy and the idea that women are passive and men active.
The juxtaposition of the physical appearances of Kitten and the crowd significantly reinforces the idea that cross-dressing is ‘engaged in by a minority group [and] commonly perceived as dubious and ridiculous’[29]. Although many young people dance along to the bands rendition of the 1960s song ‘Sand’, towards the end of the scene older males at the back of the crowd take a more conservative approach to the progressive nature of Kitten’s performance and retaliate. The reactions of others to the act of cross-dressing are a significant part of its portrayal in film. Notably, in both ‘The Adventures of Priscilla Queen of the Desert’ and ‘To Wong Foo Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar’ the characters ‘blend in to the Sydney and New York scenery’[30] reinforcing the idea that large metropolises are more open-minded and receptive to diversity. This concept is also apparent in ‘Kinky Boots’ which creates a contrast between London and Nottingham and, similarly, in ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ in which a contrast is created between County Cavan in Ireland and London. In ‘To Wong Foo Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar’ when the three main characters’ car breaks down and they are stranded in a small town they face initial hostility and suspicion from the town’s inhabitants. However, in typical Hollywood fashion, by the end of the film the two factions are united, promoting the idealised concept that ‘just get[ting] to know [them, people] will surely “accept” [them]’[31].
In contrast, it is important to remember that ‘real cases of transvestism offer more disruptive images than the tempered and rationalised counterparts created by mainstream cinema’.[32] Examples of real cross-dressing in cinema are rare. Semi-autobiographical ‘Glen or Glenda’ (1953) gives a unique insight into transvestism from cross-dressing director Ed Wood and deals with the common misconception that cross-dressing equates to ambiguous and perverse sexuality, as the narrator points out: “Glen is not a homosexual. Glen is a transvestite, but he is not a homosexual”.[33] Unfortunately, although ‘Glen or Glenda’ gives a unique portrayal of cross-dressing, a ‘sincere attempt at understanding transvestism [is] rendered unintelligible by Ed Wood's unfathomable script [and] bizarre… vignettes’[34].
Significantly, ‘Glen or Glenda’ ‘reinstates the fetishistic element of cross-dressing and thus the importance of the clothing to both the character’s arousal and his identity’[35]. Fetishistic transvestism is ‘a sexual fetish for the clothing of the opposite gender'[36]. Transvestism and cross-dressing themselves ‘are neither a sexual fetish, nor do they necessarily have anything to do with sexual behaviour or arousal’[37]. There are numerous motivations depicted in film to explain cross-dressing including disguise in ‘Some Like it Hot’ and ‘Mrs. Doubtfire’ (1993), and mental imbalance as in ‘Psycho’ and ‘Silence of the Lambs’. These examples necessitate specific reasons behind cross-dressing to create a simplistic and Hollywood-friendly ideal. In ‘Breakfast on Pluto’, on the other hand, the protagonist’s desire to dress in female clothing is left unaccounted for. Similarly, in ‘The Rocky Horror Picture Show’ (1975) the motives of protagonist Dr Frank-N-Furter, the self proclaimed ‘sweet transvestite, from Transsexual Transylvania’[38], are not implicitly explained. It is easy to infer, however, from Dr Frank-N-Furter’s sex-obsessed mad scientist persona that his motives are sexual.
‘The Rocky Horror Picture Show’ is ‘possibly the most famous and popular depiction of transvestism in the history of movies’[39]. ‘Taken at face value, the film could be considered ground-breaking for its frank, albeit comical, depiction of subjects such as transvestism’[40]. The film does portray cross-dressing in a comedic light, but also shows it as somewhat glamorous with the protagonist shown as ‘a bi-sexual vision in garter belt, bustier and platform heels’[41]. It could be suggested that the film ‘caused sexual consternation among many [heterosexual males] who may have found Curry’s shapely stiletto strutting form an arousing and confusing spectacle’[42]. This is another link with Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis, this time with the idea of repression. Sexual attraction of heterosexual males towards cross-dressers may be repressed into the unconscious. This also raises the issue of Laura Mulvey’s concept of the Male Gaze (1975) which suggests that film ‘inevitably puts the spectator in a masculine subject position, with the figure of the woman on screen as the object of desire’[43]. Interestingly, this theory could be applied to male-to-female cross-dressers, as is apparent from ‘The Rocky Horror Picture Show’.
Mulvey’s theory of the male gaze can also relate to the main character Patrick ‘Kitten’ Braden in ‘Breakfast on Pluto’. Although he is male, when dressed as a woman he is physically attractive, glamorous and has many stereotypically feminine attributes and personality traits such as being gentle and romantic. This could therefore lead to him being objectified by a male audience, especially in the scene in which he wears high heels and a mini skirt to go to the club. Furthermore, during the film ‘Kitten’ adopts stereotypically female roles such as that of a mother and a housewife thus seemingly reinforcing a patriarchal society in which becoming a woman means becoming subservient to the dominant male.
The concept of womb envy, a term coined by Karen Horney suggesting that ‘men [are] envious of a woman's ability to bear children’[44] is also very significant in the film as ‘Kitten’ goes so far as to overcome this envy by adopting a female persona and caring for Charlie’s baby in a motherly way. This contrasts to the objectification which could be associated with Dr Frank-N-Furter in ‘The Rocky Horror Picture Show’ as unlike ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ the film is overtly sexually-orientated. The ambiguous sexuality and excessive glamour in ‘The Rocky Horror Picture Show’ is indicative of the zeitgeist of the glam rock era in which the film was made, an era described as being ‘about make-up, mirrors and androgyny’[45]. During this time cross-dressing and the ambiguity it creates became an important component of the glam rock movement. Artists such as David Bowie and Marc Bolan often wore make-up and typically ‘feminine’ clothing as well as projecting a sexually ambiguous image, exemplified by Bowie’s comment: “I am a bisexual”[46]. Alongside ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ other films which depict this era include ‘Velvet Goldmine’ (1998) and ‘Hedwig and the Angry Inch’ (2001), the story of a fictional rock and roll band fronted by a transexual singer.
In conclusion, the portrayal of cross-dressing in film, although increasingly varied, remains mostly unoriginal and easily categorised. The four categories in which almost all films featuring a portrayal of cross-dressing can be placed are glamorous; demonic; humorous or personalised. Furthermore, as the essay has shown, the most common representation is humorous, examples of which can be witnessed throughout the history of film from ‘Some Like it Hot’ (1959) to ‘Tootsie’ (1982) to ‘Mrs. Doubtfire’ (1993) and more recently ‘She’s the Man’ (2006). Similarly in television cross-dressing as humour remains prolific, men dressed as women have been a source of mirth for decades and remain a steadfast of British comedy. Iconic comedians such as the two Ronnies (1970-1987), Morecambe & Wise (1968-1983) and the cast of Monty Python (1969-1974) often donned wigs and dresses, all in the name of entertainment. This tradition continues today with sketch shows such as ‘Little Britain’ (2003- ).
The portrayal of cross-dressing in film rarely involves an emotional or personalised look at the desire to dress as a member of the opposite sex. Films which have touched upon emotional issues surrounding cross-dressing include ‘Transamerica’ (2005) and ‘Kinky Boots’ (2005). Although this stance remains rare it is evident that cross-dressing is an issue which filmmakers are increasingly willing to explore in a serious manner rather than solely as a method by which to generate cheap laughs. The demonisation of cross-dressing has decreased in correlation with an increasingly permissive and open-minded society. If films such as ‘Psycho’ (1960) and ‘Silence of the Lambs’ (1991) where cross-dressing is demonised were created today they would be unlikely to reflect the preconceptions of a significantly more tolerant and accepting modern audience. Additionally the glamorous ideal of cross-dressing portrayed in films such as ‘To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar’ (1995) and ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ (2005) can almost be dismissed as pure romanticism. While mainstream films remain bound to appease the hegemony to generate profit and thus unable to question clearly defined and accepted gender roles, independent and more daring filmmakers are free to explore complex issues and previously disregarded sections of society.
WORD COUNT: 3,076
[1] Breakfast on Pluto (2005) Neil Jordan, Ireland/UK
[2] http://mediaknowall.com/gender.html
[3] Jackson, Steve; Scott, Sue (2001): Gender: A Sociological Reader p. xv
[4] Bullough, Verne L; Bullough, Bonnie (1993): Cross Dressing, Sex and Gender p. 5
[5] ibid
[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-dressing
[7] Brubach, Holly (1999): Girlfriend: Men, Women, and Drag p.1
[8] http://www.amazon.co.uk/Transamerica-Felicity-Huffman/dp/B000EF7ZTK
[9] http://www.empireonline.com/reviews/reviewcomplete.asp?DVDID=117245
[10] Time Out London Issue 1847: January 11-18 2006
[11] http://www.comingsoon.net/news/reviewsnews.php?id=12009
[12] http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/summary_0199-5429408_ITM
[13] Hayward, Susan (2000): Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts p. 164
[14] ibid
[15] Nasio, Juan-David (1999): Hysteria from Freud to Lacan: The Splendid Child of Psychoanalysis p. 41
[16] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castration#Castration_in_psychoanalysis_and_literary_theory
[17] Kuhn, Annette (1985): The Power of the Image: Essays on Representation and Sexuality p. 49
[18] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queer_Theory
[19] Patrick, Breakfast on Pluto (2005) Neil Jordan, Ireland/UK
[20] Butler, Judith (1999): Gender Trouble p. 175
[21] Seidman, Steven (1996): Queer Theory Sociology p. 133
[22] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_%28clothing%29
[23] Rosen, Jamie (1999): Nice Job!: Cool, Odd, Risky and Gruesome Ways to Make a Living p. 70
[24] Walters, Suzana Danuta (2001): All the Rage: Gay Visibility in America p. 141
[25] ibid
[26] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priscilla_Queen_Of_The_Desert
[27] Lola, Kinky Boots (2005) Julian Jarrold, USA/UK
[28] Sanders, Thomas E.; Peek, Walter W. (1973): Literature of the American Indian p.184
[29] Suthrall, Charlotte A (2004): Unzipping Gender: Sex, Cross-dressing and Culture p. 1
[30] Raffo, Susan (1997): Queerly Classed p. 194
[31] Walters, Suzana Danuta (2001): All the Rage: Gay Visibility in America p. 142
[32] Bruzzi, Stella (1997): Undressing Cinema: Clothes, Identities, Films p. 149
[33] Narrator, Glen or Glenda (1953) Edward D. Wood Jr., USA
[34] http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0045826/plotsummary
[35] Bruzzi, Stella (1997): Undressing Cinema: Clothes, Identities, Films p. 149
[36] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_fetish
[37] ibid
[38] The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975) Jim Sharman, UK/USA
[39] http://www.rainbownetwork.com/Film/detail.asp?iData=14849&iCat=92&iChannel=14&nChannel=Film
[40] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rocky_Horror_Picture_Show
[41] Ginibre, Jean-Louis (2005): Ladies or Gentlemen: A Pictorial History of Male Cross-Dressing in the Movies p. 10
[42] http://www.rainbownetwork.com/Film/detail.asp?iData=14849&iCat=92&iChannel=14&nChannel=Film
[43] http://www.jtmd.blogspot.com
[44] http://www.webster.edu/~woolflm/horney.html
[45] Rock, Mick (2005): Glam!: An Eyewitness Account, synopsis
[46] David Bowie Interview, Playboy Magazine, September 1976
Gender is used as ‘a basic category… for sorting human beings’[2] and ‘denotes a… division between women and men embedded in both social institutions and social practices’[3]. In terms of representation, gender can be described as an ‘achieved status rather than an ascribed biological characteristic’[4], and one that is ‘based on tasks performed and the significance of clothing’[5] rather than actual physical anatomy. The definitive attributes of each gender are significant in cross-dressing, an act defined as ‘wearing clothing commonly associated with another gender'[6]. Throughout the history of film, cross-dressers and the act of cross-dressing have been represented using a variety of portrayals. From ‘mental misfits who wove cross-dressing into their psychotic activities’[7] in films such as ‘Psycho’ (1960) and ‘Silence of the Lambs’ (1991) to the caricatured and comedic man in a dress evident in films such as ‘Some Like it Hot’ (1959) and ‘Tootsie’ (1982) cross-dressing in film can be seen in various guises.
Alongside the use of cross-dressing in a humorous capacity, evident in the image of Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis tottering along a train platform on high heels in ‘Some Like it Hot’, and the demonisation of the act, shown in ‘Silence of the Lambs’ by protagonist ‘Buffalo Bill’ Gumb who desperately attempts to adopt ‘feminine’ qualities, notably both mainstream films, the portrayal of cross-dressing in film can be placed into two additional distinct categories: personalised or glamorised. An example of the former is ‘Transamerica’ (2005), an independent film, which features a ‘sensitive and intuitive’[8] depiction of the emotional journey of protagonist Bree, a transsexual. ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ (2005), on the other hand, leans more towards glamorisation overall, with protagonist Patrick ‘Kitten’ Braden, who looks ‘startlingly pretty in blonde curls, lip gloss and fur’[9] being portrayed as ‘a splash of vibrant colour within a monochrome world’[10]. With particular reference to ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ this essay will illuminate the ways in which cross-dressing is represented in film while resting on the self-contrived hypothesis that the depiction can be categorised in four ways: cross-dressing as glamorous; demonic; humorous or personalised. Further to this hypothesis the essay will also interpose that the most common portrayal of cross-dressing in film is in a humorous capacity.
‘Breakfast on Pluto’ is an art house comedy/drama, with elements of romance, which depicts the adventures and encounters of Patrick ‘Kitten’ Braden as he proceeds from small-town life in Ireland to 1970s London in search of his mother. The film is stylised, episodic and features ‘computer visuals [which] enhance the real world with the fantasy world’[11]. ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ features a circular-narrative and subsequently we first meet the protagonist in the opening scene as ‘a demurely dressed woman push[ing] a pram down a London street, passing a busy construction site… [and] attract[ing] wolf whistles from the workers on the scaffolding above’[12]. This scene, alongside several others, contains dramatic irony in that the audience are persistently aware of the protagonists cross-dressing whereas at points throughout the film certain characters are oblivious.
Audience consciousness of cross-dressing is a shared trait in the majority of films which depict the subject, yet this awareness surpasses mere narrative and can be examined as an example of underlying patriarchy. The question can be asked ‘why is it that we must not be allowed to be completely duped by cross-dressing?’[13] Leading to the query ‘why is it that male sexuality must not be completely repressed?’[14] The answer to these questions could become apparent when looking at Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis and, specifically, the idea of castration anxiety. Castration anxiety is ‘anxiety in the face of the threat of [removal of the phallus]’[15], the phallus being ‘not merely the penis but rather the power and authority that the penis represents’[16]. Complete repression of male sexuality in cross-dressing could generate such anxiety; therefore the audience is always conscious of the gender beneath the clothing. Castration anxiety which could be created in ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ is reduced by the use of phallic symbols throughout the film. An example of this is on two occasions when we see Patrick ‘Kitten’ Braden applying make-up in a mirror, once as a boy and once as an adolescent, the picture on the mirror is a beer bottle, an obvious phallic symbol.
Another response to the question of why male sexuality is irrepressible in cross-dressing is that the topic of cross-dressing in film causes ‘the socially constructed nature of sexual difference [to be] fore-grounded and even subjected to comment: what appears natural, then, reveals itself as artifice’[17]. This therefore poses a challenge to the hegemony, linking with the Queer Theory (1990), a theory stemming from third wave feminism which questions whether ‘the categories of sexuality [are] socially contrived, created through discourse, or are… natural givens, outside of our control’[18]. The concept of cross-dressing obviously relies on the tangible distinctions between male and female characteristics and specifically clothing. In ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ the differences between the protagonist and stereotypical males is expressed early in the film when he suggests to a schoolteacher: “instead of PE I could take home economics and needlework class”[19]. This therefore reinforces the distinct differences between accepted male and female activities, a concept questioned by the queer theory.
Pioneering queer theorist Judith Butler wrote that ‘the performance of drag plays upon the distinction between the anatomy of the performer and the gender that is being performed’[20]. Using drag and cross-dressing Judith Butler ‘develops a conception of gender as performance’[21] rather than a definitive label. Drag ‘usually refers to the clothing associated with one gender role when worn by a person of the other gender’[22]. It ‘blurs gender lines and makes an audience question traditional ideas of sex’[23]. The portrayal of cross-dressing in film often takes the form of drag as can be seen in ‘The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert’ (1994), ‘To Wong Foo Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar’ (1995) and more recently ‘Kinky Boots’ (2005). Drag queens are stereotypically highly glamorous, audacious and witty with exaggerated ‘feminine’ qualities and attributes such as excess make-up and extra long eyelashes, thus supporting Judith Butler’s idea of gender as performance. ‘In films… drag becomes a safe and circuitous way of dealing with gay subjects’[24] as it implies that ‘homosexuality is about what one wears, not what one feels’[25]. Consequently drag is more acceptable in mainstream films, portraying this specific form of cross-dressing as humorous, glamorous but very rarely an emotional issue.
Cult Australian film ‘The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert’ ‘explored gay stereotypes without [using them] for… cheap laugh[s]’[26] unlike many of the films’ mainstream counterparts. Conversely, Hollywood’s ‘To Wong Foo Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar’ creates the humorous image of Patrick Swayze, John Leguizamo and Wesley Snipes, actors better known for roles in films such as ‘Dirty Dancing’ (1987) and ‘Blade’ (1998). Here they adorn make-up, heels and frocks, creating a ‘safe’, Hollywood-friendly portrayal of a complex issue. British film, ‘Kinky Boots’ differs from Hollywood representations due to the occasionally poignant portrayal of transvestite Lola’s search for her identity. Unlike many films featuring drag ‘Kinky Boots’ touches upon the emotional issues surrounding cross-dressing, significantly when Lola exclaims: “Put on a frock and I can sing 'Stand by Your Man' in front of five hundred strangers... Put on a pair of jeans and I can't even sodding well say hello”[27]. Consequently the film ‘Kinky Boots’ becomes difficult to categorise in its portrayal as it contains degrees of humour, glamour, but also the personal approach.
In ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ the first appearance of protagonist Patrick ‘Kitten’ Braden fully in female clothing is during a performance with Billy and the Mohawks in a scene entitled ‘My Showbiz Career’. The opening shot of this scene begins with the camera panning over a crowd of young people dancing, generally wearing quite conservative clothing. This creates a binary opposition between the norms in the crowd and Kitten who, onstage with lead singer Billy and the band, wears a gold and glittering costume connoting glamour and preciousness. Kitten is dressed as a squaw; a position which connotes an ‘enslaved [and] voiceless child bearer’[28], therefore Kitten is portrayed as inferior in the relationship and subservient to dominant and ‘masculine’ Billy. In an earlier scene Kitten volunteered to be squaw, which suggests a desire to be submissive to a dominant partner thus reinforcing patriarchy and the idea that women are passive and men active.
The juxtaposition of the physical appearances of Kitten and the crowd significantly reinforces the idea that cross-dressing is ‘engaged in by a minority group [and] commonly perceived as dubious and ridiculous’[29]. Although many young people dance along to the bands rendition of the 1960s song ‘Sand’, towards the end of the scene older males at the back of the crowd take a more conservative approach to the progressive nature of Kitten’s performance and retaliate. The reactions of others to the act of cross-dressing are a significant part of its portrayal in film. Notably, in both ‘The Adventures of Priscilla Queen of the Desert’ and ‘To Wong Foo Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar’ the characters ‘blend in to the Sydney and New York scenery’[30] reinforcing the idea that large metropolises are more open-minded and receptive to diversity. This concept is also apparent in ‘Kinky Boots’ which creates a contrast between London and Nottingham and, similarly, in ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ in which a contrast is created between County Cavan in Ireland and London. In ‘To Wong Foo Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar’ when the three main characters’ car breaks down and they are stranded in a small town they face initial hostility and suspicion from the town’s inhabitants. However, in typical Hollywood fashion, by the end of the film the two factions are united, promoting the idealised concept that ‘just get[ting] to know [them, people] will surely “accept” [them]’[31].
In contrast, it is important to remember that ‘real cases of transvestism offer more disruptive images than the tempered and rationalised counterparts created by mainstream cinema’.[32] Examples of real cross-dressing in cinema are rare. Semi-autobiographical ‘Glen or Glenda’ (1953) gives a unique insight into transvestism from cross-dressing director Ed Wood and deals with the common misconception that cross-dressing equates to ambiguous and perverse sexuality, as the narrator points out: “Glen is not a homosexual. Glen is a transvestite, but he is not a homosexual”.[33] Unfortunately, although ‘Glen or Glenda’ gives a unique portrayal of cross-dressing, a ‘sincere attempt at understanding transvestism [is] rendered unintelligible by Ed Wood's unfathomable script [and] bizarre… vignettes’[34].
Significantly, ‘Glen or Glenda’ ‘reinstates the fetishistic element of cross-dressing and thus the importance of the clothing to both the character’s arousal and his identity’[35]. Fetishistic transvestism is ‘a sexual fetish for the clothing of the opposite gender'[36]. Transvestism and cross-dressing themselves ‘are neither a sexual fetish, nor do they necessarily have anything to do with sexual behaviour or arousal’[37]. There are numerous motivations depicted in film to explain cross-dressing including disguise in ‘Some Like it Hot’ and ‘Mrs. Doubtfire’ (1993), and mental imbalance as in ‘Psycho’ and ‘Silence of the Lambs’. These examples necessitate specific reasons behind cross-dressing to create a simplistic and Hollywood-friendly ideal. In ‘Breakfast on Pluto’, on the other hand, the protagonist’s desire to dress in female clothing is left unaccounted for. Similarly, in ‘The Rocky Horror Picture Show’ (1975) the motives of protagonist Dr Frank-N-Furter, the self proclaimed ‘sweet transvestite, from Transsexual Transylvania’[38], are not implicitly explained. It is easy to infer, however, from Dr Frank-N-Furter’s sex-obsessed mad scientist persona that his motives are sexual.
‘The Rocky Horror Picture Show’ is ‘possibly the most famous and popular depiction of transvestism in the history of movies’[39]. ‘Taken at face value, the film could be considered ground-breaking for its frank, albeit comical, depiction of subjects such as transvestism’[40]. The film does portray cross-dressing in a comedic light, but also shows it as somewhat glamorous with the protagonist shown as ‘a bi-sexual vision in garter belt, bustier and platform heels’[41]. It could be suggested that the film ‘caused sexual consternation among many [heterosexual males] who may have found Curry’s shapely stiletto strutting form an arousing and confusing spectacle’[42]. This is another link with Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis, this time with the idea of repression. Sexual attraction of heterosexual males towards cross-dressers may be repressed into the unconscious. This also raises the issue of Laura Mulvey’s concept of the Male Gaze (1975) which suggests that film ‘inevitably puts the spectator in a masculine subject position, with the figure of the woman on screen as the object of desire’[43]. Interestingly, this theory could be applied to male-to-female cross-dressers, as is apparent from ‘The Rocky Horror Picture Show’.
Mulvey’s theory of the male gaze can also relate to the main character Patrick ‘Kitten’ Braden in ‘Breakfast on Pluto’. Although he is male, when dressed as a woman he is physically attractive, glamorous and has many stereotypically feminine attributes and personality traits such as being gentle and romantic. This could therefore lead to him being objectified by a male audience, especially in the scene in which he wears high heels and a mini skirt to go to the club. Furthermore, during the film ‘Kitten’ adopts stereotypically female roles such as that of a mother and a housewife thus seemingly reinforcing a patriarchal society in which becoming a woman means becoming subservient to the dominant male.
The concept of womb envy, a term coined by Karen Horney suggesting that ‘men [are] envious of a woman's ability to bear children’[44] is also very significant in the film as ‘Kitten’ goes so far as to overcome this envy by adopting a female persona and caring for Charlie’s baby in a motherly way. This contrasts to the objectification which could be associated with Dr Frank-N-Furter in ‘The Rocky Horror Picture Show’ as unlike ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ the film is overtly sexually-orientated. The ambiguous sexuality and excessive glamour in ‘The Rocky Horror Picture Show’ is indicative of the zeitgeist of the glam rock era in which the film was made, an era described as being ‘about make-up, mirrors and androgyny’[45]. During this time cross-dressing and the ambiguity it creates became an important component of the glam rock movement. Artists such as David Bowie and Marc Bolan often wore make-up and typically ‘feminine’ clothing as well as projecting a sexually ambiguous image, exemplified by Bowie’s comment: “I am a bisexual”[46]. Alongside ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ other films which depict this era include ‘Velvet Goldmine’ (1998) and ‘Hedwig and the Angry Inch’ (2001), the story of a fictional rock and roll band fronted by a transexual singer.
In conclusion, the portrayal of cross-dressing in film, although increasingly varied, remains mostly unoriginal and easily categorised. The four categories in which almost all films featuring a portrayal of cross-dressing can be placed are glamorous; demonic; humorous or personalised. Furthermore, as the essay has shown, the most common representation is humorous, examples of which can be witnessed throughout the history of film from ‘Some Like it Hot’ (1959) to ‘Tootsie’ (1982) to ‘Mrs. Doubtfire’ (1993) and more recently ‘She’s the Man’ (2006). Similarly in television cross-dressing as humour remains prolific, men dressed as women have been a source of mirth for decades and remain a steadfast of British comedy. Iconic comedians such as the two Ronnies (1970-1987), Morecambe & Wise (1968-1983) and the cast of Monty Python (1969-1974) often donned wigs and dresses, all in the name of entertainment. This tradition continues today with sketch shows such as ‘Little Britain’ (2003- ).
The portrayal of cross-dressing in film rarely involves an emotional or personalised look at the desire to dress as a member of the opposite sex. Films which have touched upon emotional issues surrounding cross-dressing include ‘Transamerica’ (2005) and ‘Kinky Boots’ (2005). Although this stance remains rare it is evident that cross-dressing is an issue which filmmakers are increasingly willing to explore in a serious manner rather than solely as a method by which to generate cheap laughs. The demonisation of cross-dressing has decreased in correlation with an increasingly permissive and open-minded society. If films such as ‘Psycho’ (1960) and ‘Silence of the Lambs’ (1991) where cross-dressing is demonised were created today they would be unlikely to reflect the preconceptions of a significantly more tolerant and accepting modern audience. Additionally the glamorous ideal of cross-dressing portrayed in films such as ‘To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar’ (1995) and ‘Breakfast on Pluto’ (2005) can almost be dismissed as pure romanticism. While mainstream films remain bound to appease the hegemony to generate profit and thus unable to question clearly defined and accepted gender roles, independent and more daring filmmakers are free to explore complex issues and previously disregarded sections of society.
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[1] Breakfast on Pluto (2005) Neil Jordan, Ireland/UK
[2] http://mediaknowall.com/gender.html
[3] Jackson, Steve; Scott, Sue (2001): Gender: A Sociological Reader p. xv
[4] Bullough, Verne L; Bullough, Bonnie (1993): Cross Dressing, Sex and Gender p. 5
[5] ibid
[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-dressing
[7] Brubach, Holly (1999): Girlfriend: Men, Women, and Drag p.1
[8] http://www.amazon.co.uk/Transamerica-Felicity-Huffman/dp/B000EF7ZTK
[9] http://www.empireonline.com/reviews/reviewcomplete.asp?DVDID=117245
[10] Time Out London Issue 1847: January 11-18 2006
[11] http://www.comingsoon.net/news/reviewsnews.php?id=12009
[12] http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/summary_0199-5429408_ITM
[13] Hayward, Susan (2000): Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts p. 164
[14] ibid
[15] Nasio, Juan-David (1999): Hysteria from Freud to Lacan: The Splendid Child of Psychoanalysis p. 41
[16] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castration#Castration_in_psychoanalysis_and_literary_theory
[17] Kuhn, Annette (1985): The Power of the Image: Essays on Representation and Sexuality p. 49
[18] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queer_Theory
[19] Patrick, Breakfast on Pluto (2005) Neil Jordan, Ireland/UK
[20] Butler, Judith (1999): Gender Trouble p. 175
[21] Seidman, Steven (1996): Queer Theory Sociology p. 133
[22] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_%28clothing%29
[23] Rosen, Jamie (1999): Nice Job!: Cool, Odd, Risky and Gruesome Ways to Make a Living p. 70
[24] Walters, Suzana Danuta (2001): All the Rage: Gay Visibility in America p. 141
[25] ibid
[26] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priscilla_Queen_Of_The_Desert
[27] Lola, Kinky Boots (2005) Julian Jarrold, USA/UK
[28] Sanders, Thomas E.; Peek, Walter W. (1973): Literature of the American Indian p.184
[29] Suthrall, Charlotte A (2004): Unzipping Gender: Sex, Cross-dressing and Culture p. 1
[30] Raffo, Susan (1997): Queerly Classed p. 194
[31] Walters, Suzana Danuta (2001): All the Rage: Gay Visibility in America p. 142
[32] Bruzzi, Stella (1997): Undressing Cinema: Clothes, Identities, Films p. 149
[33] Narrator, Glen or Glenda (1953) Edward D. Wood Jr., USA
[34] http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0045826/plotsummary
[35] Bruzzi, Stella (1997): Undressing Cinema: Clothes, Identities, Films p. 149
[36] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_fetish
[37] ibid
[38] The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975) Jim Sharman, UK/USA
[39] http://www.rainbownetwork.com/Film/detail.asp?iData=14849&iCat=92&iChannel=14&nChannel=Film
[40] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rocky_Horror_Picture_Show
[41] Ginibre, Jean-Louis (2005): Ladies or Gentlemen: A Pictorial History of Male Cross-Dressing in the Movies p. 10
[42] http://www.rainbownetwork.com/Film/detail.asp?iData=14849&iCat=92&iChannel=14&nChannel=Film
[43] http://www.jtmd.blogspot.com
[44] http://www.webster.edu/~woolflm/horney.html
[45] Rock, Mick (2005): Glam!: An Eyewitness Account, synopsis
[46] David Bowie Interview, Playboy Magazine, September 1976
posted by a_moran at 5/11/2007
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